# ARTS #### THE HISTORY OF ARTS THE HISTORY OF MUSIC THE HISTORY OF DANCE ### THE HISTORY OF ARTS #### Art in the Early Angevine Age (1300-1350) ##### Introduction The chaotic history of the first quarter of the century was not ideal for the arts. People usually spent their money on building fortresses and defending themselves. Hospes settlements founded in the 13th century became more influential where new - though simple and conservative - churches were built in great numbers. The king, the church and the new aristocracy started to support the arts only from the 1330s. Architecture followed the late Gothic style of French origin in Czech and Austrian territories. The same style prevails in sculpture and partly in painting, too, but we can also feel the influence of the Italian trecento in the new genres, especially in the luxurious environment of the court and prelates. ##### Architecture ###### Fortresses The anarchic situation following the extinction of the Árpád dynasty was beneficial for governors of provinces and their environment. The fortresses they built at the turn of the century were small stone buildings with towers, stone walls, palace and cistern, which were difficult to approach (for example, the Márévár [Máré castle] before 1316). They did not care about comfort and splendour. Near the smaller landlords' mansions wooden fortresses, the so-called mottes were built in even greater numbers. They consisted of moats, fence and a wood tower or house. During the consolidation of Charles I's power the king obtained the majority of the fortresses. He had many of them destroyed and rarely gave permission for building new ones. ###### Village churches and monasteries The first stone churches were built at the turn of the century near the borders, in the new villages, which were founded in the 13th century. These were simple and conservative buildings, for example in Csorda and Vámosatya in Szatmár, Kakaslomnic and Zsegra in the Szepesség, and Velemér in West-Hungary. The development of the Pauline hermit order, which originated from Hungary, started at this time. They put their residence into the St Lorence monastery near Buda. The landowners also had some churches built, mainly for the modest Paulines, but these buildings were hardly bigger than village churches (Diósgyőr before 1304, Dédes before 1313, Uzsaszentlélek before 1333 and Felnémet in 1347). The Karthauz hermits also settled down in Hungary: Menedékkő was built in the Szepesség (before 1308), then the red monastery of Lehnic (1319-1344). Next to the fortress the people of Siklós built a monastery for the Augustine canons before 1333. ###### Cathedrals The reconstruction of cathedrals which were destroyed in the inner conflicts of the preceeding decades started in the 1330s. Bishop Andrew Szécsi (1320-1356) finished the construction of the 13th-century building of the Gyulafehérvár cathedral. The single-naved, Gothic cathedral of Nyitra (1333-1355) and the chancel of the Esztergom cathedral (around 1336-1351) were also completed then. Bishop Andrew Bátori (1329-1345) had a monumental western facade built to the cathedral of Nagyvárad in the 1330s, which consisted of two column-like towers with a choir between them and decorated gates. The cathedral of Eger was also enlarged with similar western twin towers, thanks to Bishop Miklós Dörögdi (1332-1361). He himself was buried in the hall between the towers. To the latter two cathedrals round, chapel-wreath chancels were added before the middle of the century, following French models. The construction works in Nagyvárad which was started in 1342 lasted till the beginning of the 15th century, the chancel of Eger was probably never completed. ###### Royal centers Charles I transferred his residence to Visegrád in 1323. He removed his court first to the Visegrád fortress, then to a house in the city, in the predecessor of the Visegrád Royal Palace. Around 1340 they started to build a decorative chapel next to the royal house, but the construction works soon stopped because of the court moving to Buda in 1347. In 1343 Louis I presented the earlier royal castle in Óbuda to her mother, Queen Elisabeth Piaszt, who established her residence there. Near the rebuilt castle the Queen had a Clarissan monastery built before 1350, and next to the St Peter prepostery church of Óbuda she had a new church built before 1348 in honour of the Virgin Mary. At the earlier royal residence in Buda the St Martin chapel was built in 1349 in the Kammerhof, which was built by Charles. So the place became suitable for being the real residence. The king's brother, the governor of the country, Prince Stephen, had his Buda castle built in the southern part of the city. ###### Royal church constructions In 1318 the Székesfehérvár basilica was destroyed by fire. Charles I had the church rebuilt: he had the pillars strengthened and the main nave vaulted, making a Gothic church from the Roman building. In 1327 there was another fire, but this time only the roof was destroyed. At Kolozsmonostor the king had the Árpád age Benedictine abbacy reconstructed. The simple chancel of the church can still be seen today. In the 1330-1340s a new chancel was built to the Dominican nunnery at the Margaret Island, which was quite close to the new royal center. Some time later a splendid divider with sculptures was added to the chancel of the church of the Cistercian monastery of Pilis. The latter constructions can be connected to the building workshop of the unfinished palace chapel of Visegrád, and all of them represent Central-European late classical Gothic style. ###### Cities Several cities finished the construction of their city walls and churches in the first half of the 14th century. The triple city of Sopron was finished by 1340. The nave and chancel divider of the Franciscan church of Sopron was built around 1300, and the chapter hall in the first third of the century. The first synagogue of the city was also finished then. The chancel of the Clarissan church of Pozsony was built in the 1330s in the same style as the Sopron chapter hall. Large church halls were built in Igló and Lőcse in the Szepesség. New chancels were added to the parish church of Nagyszeben and the St Elisabeth church of Kassa. In Kassa a new cemetery chapel was built in honour of St Michael. The development of estate centers also started. For example, Thomas Szécsényi founded a Franciscan monastery at Szécsény after 1335. ##### Fine arts ###### Sculpture After the building of the new chancel in the Dominican nunnery of the Margaret Island the tombstone of St Margaret was erected in the second third of the century, which was made by Italian masters. The same sculptors made the head of a brother, which was found at Visegrád. The earliest winged altar in Hungary survived from Kríg, the central baldachin of which is surrounded by wings with reliefs, The Madonna of Pozsonyszölős followed a French model. The Madonnas of Toporc and Ruskin, which originate from the second quarter of the century, follow more modern, South-German models. Besides the Madonnas the wooden sculpture of the age is represented by crucifixes. The characteristic feature of these is the painful representation of the corp on a living crucifix. The most beautiful relic from the middle of the century survived from the church of Mateóc in the Szepesség. ###### Painting The frescos of Szepeshely, Szepesdaróc and Kakaslomnic show Byzantine influence in their style at the beginning of the century. The series of frescos of Tereske, however, followed the Central-European Gothic style. The St Ladislaus legend was a popular theme. The archbishopric chapel of Esztergom was painted in the 1330s, the chapel of the bishopric palace of Zagreb and the cathedral of Nagyvárad were painted in the 1350s by Central-Italian masters. The Italian influence was felt in book painting, too, through codices made mainly in Bologne, such as Demeter Nekcsei (keeper of the Treasury)'s Bible or the Angevine Legendarium painted for Prince Andrew. ###### Minor arts A fine memory of 14th-century smithery was the ciborium (host container), the sides of which are decorated with carved scenes. The cross of Igló was similarly decorated. A portable altar with enamel decorations, which was made in Paris, was in the possession of Queen Elisabeth Piaszt. Later she presented it to the Clarissians of Óbuda. From secular everyday objects of the age treasure troves and accessories survived from tombs. Signets were made by smiths. Besides the series of royal signets, which were of high artistic quality, the signet of the St George Order of Knighthood must be mentioned, since it was very special. The seals of barons usually represented their coats-of-arms, sometimes knights. The seals of the cities represented their patron saint or walls. The signets of prelates were often mandorla-shaped and showed the patron saint of the their church. #### Art in the Late Angevine Age (1350-1400) ##### Introduction At the beginning of the period the most important customers were the Queen Mother, Elisabeth, from the 1370s Louis I, then his daughter, Maria and his husband, King Sigismund. The booming court culture fitted organically into the international Gothic style of the age. Italian influence could be felt in each branch of art, but art at the emperor's court in Prague was also very influential. Peter Parler, who led the constructions in Prague, opened a new stage in Gothic architecture, which had its echoes in Hungary, too. Besides this there was another variant of the style in Central-Europe, which was rather puritan, spread mainly by begging orders. The art of the cities had connections with Austria and Little Poland through business relationships. ##### Architecture ###### Visegrád Since the royal court moved back to Visegrád in 1355, Louis I had the earlier royal house enlarged into a palace. By the 1370s the fortress of Visegrád was also rebuilt. The reconstructions of the royal palace of Visegrád may have started at the end of the 1370s but were completed by Sigismund around 1400. The Virgin Mary parish church of the city and the Augustine monastery were also renewed. Louis I made the palace of Buda his royal residence, as he added a new yard, palace side-wings and a chapel to it from the end of the 1370s. The giving away of the earlier royal residence, the Kammerhof, in 1382 meant that the palace was ready. The fortresses which defended the new yard were built during Maria and Sigismund's reign. The construction of the Gothic chancels of the Mary Magdalene parish church and the St Nicholas Dominican church in the city started at that time. ###### Bishopric buildings and fortresses Coloman, Bishop of Győr (1336-1375), and Charles I's bastard son, enriched the fortress of Győr with an escutcheoned gate-tower. At Pécs Bishop Miklós Poroszlói founded the Mary chapel in 1355 near the earlier bishopric palace. In 1360 he was buried here. His successor, Bishop William (1361-1374) had the palace rebuilt, and maybe placed the university of Pécs - which was also founded by him - here. He was buried in the Mary chapel, in a pompous tomb with sculpture and baldachin. Louis I had the fortress of Diósgyőr - with four corner towers - and the fortress of Zólyom - which had no towers- built in the 1370s. Both of the fortresses had a regular square ground plan. Sigismund's fortress of Végles followed the pattern of the Zólyom fortress. The fortress of Gesztes, which was also built in the age of Sigismund, had a simple, but regular ground plan and a closed yard between the two side-wings. ###### The cities of West-Hungary and Upper Hungary The constructions of Western Hungarian cities followed Viennese patterns. The tower of the Franciscan church of Sopron, the St Michael parish church and the St George chapel and the new synagogue represent the architecture of the second half of the 14th century. The western part of the St Martin parish church and the Clarissan church and the St John chapel of the Franciscan church of Pozsony were built at that time, too. The constructions of the parish church of Lőcse were finished then, but the building of the Nagyszombat church started then. A new, large Franciscan church was built in Lőcse. The parish church of Pest was enlarged with a chancel hall, The new chancel of the Veszprém cathedral and the crypt were built around 1380-1400 with plain details. ###### Transylvanian cities The influence of 14th-century Austrian architecture can be felt in Transylvania, too: the patterns of the chancels of the parish church of Szászsebes and the Black church of Brasso and the triple chancel apsis of the parish church of Kolozsvár are from there. The longitudinal house of the parish church of Nagyszeben was finished in a oldish, basilica form with a transcept and a huge square tower was built in front of its western facade, according to local Saxon traditions. This type of church was built in a smaller form in other Saxon settlements, for example, in Ecel. The Franciscan church of Marosvásárhely followed the model of the single-naved Franciscan church type with a long chancel, which was wide-spread in the whole country. Its gates show a slightly old, but richly partitioned form, which was quite popular in Transylvania. Some other nice examples of this type are the gates of the Calvinist church of Ótorda. ###### Monasteries The booming of the Pauline order continued in the second half of the 14th century. The church of the Tüskevár monastery is similar to the buttress system of church of the Csatka monastery, which was consecrated in 1361. The three-nave new church of Budaszentlőrinc was built in Sigismund's age, and the rebuilt chancel of the earlier church was reconstructed into Hermit St Paul's relic chapel. In the market towns, besides the residences of landlords monasteries of the begging orders were built. The long chancel of the Franciscan church of Keszthely, which was founded by Stephen Lackfi, had already stood in 1397. The vaulted nave was built at the beginning of the 15th century. The church of the Premonrean monastery of Lelesz was rebuilt in the 1350-1360s. ##### Fine arts ###### Sculpture Unfortunatelly the Angevine tombstones of Székesfehérvár survived only in fragments. Though the tombstones of the two abbots, from 1365 and 1372, were preserved unbroken. The wooden sculptures of the age survived, first of all, in the Highland. The St Nicholas wooden sculpture of Szelcse is from the region of the mining towns. The richest series of sculptures in the Szepesség consists of the apostles on the pediment of the main altar of the St Jacob church of Lőcse. The Madonnas of Szlatvin and Kőperény represent the different types of Madonna sculptures. St George's bronze statue (1373) - which can be seen in Prague today - and the St Ladislaus equestrian statue of Nagyvárad, which was later destroyed, and the statues of the three saint kings were made by the most significant sculptors of medieval Hungary, Martin and George of Kolozsvár. ###### Painting The effects of the Italian trecento still played an important role in the painting of the second half of the century. It can be proved by the frescos of the chancel of the Keszthely Franciscan church from the end of the 14th century and the frescos of the church of Zsegra in the Highland from the 1360s. The decoration of the chancel of the church of Csomorja from the Csallóköz represents linear Gothic style, which originates from the west. In the king-paintings of the St Jacob church of Lőcse and on the St Dorothy cycle we can see the signs of international Gothic style already at the end of the century. The most outstanding series of frescos were painted by Johannes Aquila, whose main works - in spite of his Styrian origin - survived on the territory of medieval Hungary: in the churches of Velemér (1378), Bántornya (1383 and 1389) and Mártonhely (1392). ###### Book and tabloid painting The most important memory of the second half of the 14th century is a painted codex - made by a master who studied in Italy -, the Illustrated Chronicle. Parish priest Henrich of Csukárd is known by the name; as a miniaturist he decorated a service book (missale) in 1377. The influence of international Gothic was very strong at the end of the century. It was spread by Czech manuscripts, which were brought into the country, for example, the Chapter of Pozsony, Vencel Ganoy's Bible. Ladislaus Miskolci's missale (1394) is a relic of this style from Hungary. The earliest Hungarian tabloids originate from this period. In 1367 Louis I presented three pictures to the Hungarian chapel of Aachen, but today only their frames are original. More survived from the Madonna picture, presented to Máriacell, which followed Italian patterns. ###### Minor arts Several objects of smithery survived from Louis I's court, such as the King's double cross and treasure that he gave to the Hungarian chapel of Aachen: altar equipments, relic holders, escutcheoned cloak clips. The herm (head relic holder) of Tercsény, originating from the 1380s, represents the popular relic holder type of the age. St Simeon's silver coffin of Zára was made to the order of the Queen, Bosnian Elisabeth. The Esztergom paramentum (altar cloth), the embroidery of which represents the figure of the resurrected Christ, might have been brought to the Paulian monastery of Göncruszka as Queen Maria's present. The mitre (bishop's cap) of Győr is a nice example of the liturgic clothes of the age. Master Conrad Gaal founded the Iglo workshop, which provided great part of the Highland with bells and bronze baptising pools for centuries. Tile stoves also appeared at that time. #### Art in the Late Sigismund-Age (1400-1437) ##### Introduction Artistic representation was an important political instrument for King Sigismund. He tried to create a court in Buda, following western models, appropriate to an emperor. The French, South-German and Austrian masters participating in royal constructions had epoch-making works both in architecture and sculpture. The style of royal constructions had a strong influence on the art of several cities and landlord districts. An artistic region came into being in East-Hungary, along an important trade route, with the centre of Kassa. The painting of the royal centre was as significant as that of Charles IV's court in Prague. Italian trends did not disappear from painting, but they were pushed back. ##### Architecture ###### Fortresses and palaces King Sigismund had the fortress of Tata built in the first decade of the 15th century, following the pattern of the Diósgyőr fortress, with a row of arcades in its yard. He had the fortress of Visegrád enlarged, too, with an outer wall and a decorative outside gate tower. Sigismund's baron followed the King's example: Filippo Scolari had a Northern Italian-style castle built, which had a regular ground-plan (1416-1426), and János Maróti also had one in Gyula. The huge castle of the Garais in Siklós had a rather irregular ground-plan, just like their castle in Csesznek, which was built on a mountain (1424). Here - just like in the case of the constructions of voivode Stibor's mountain castle at Beckó - they did not the have the possibility to follow a regular ground-plan. In this peaceful period a lot of weakly fortified, comfortable castles were built as well, for example, at Tar, Kisnána and Szászvár. ###### Buda The enlargement of the Buda castle was started in the 1410s by Sigismund. A new block was built including a multi-storey audience hall and an extended fortification system. The King founded the St Sigismund provostship in front of the palace, near the town royal house, called Fresh Palace. The church of this provostship, completed between 1410-1424, was very similar to the Maria Magdalena parish church, which was rebuilt at that time. The Church of Our Lady of Buda was rebuilt parallel to the constructions of the palace. It was enlarged with new side-chancels, splendid southern gates and the chapel of the Garai family. The city itself gained its medieval shape then: several one or two-storey stone buildings were built here. ###### Pozsony The constructions of Pozsony were carried out under Viennese influence in the first quarter of the century, examplified by the spire of the Franciscan church or the outer form of the town hall. Because of the Hussite threat, Sigismund started to fortify the castle and the city in the 1420s. In the 1430s the castle became an important residence of the ruler. The constructions of Buda were stopped and the architectural workshop moved to the Pozsony castle with the lead of Master Conrad Erlingi. The castle with a square ground-plan and a corner tower followed the pattern of the Diósgyőr fortress. The beautiful gate tower of the outer wall is a close 'relative' of the Visegrád and Buda gate towers, which resembles the bridge tower of the old city of Prague. The style of the castle building workshop defined the constructions in the city: the new wing of the town hall of Pozsony and the finish of the western part of the St Martin church of Pozsony, and also the details of several houses in the city. ###### East Hungary The reconstructions of the St Elisabeth church of Kassa started at the beginning of the 15th century. A five-nave, cross-house church was raised with three decorative gates. The constructions, especially the style of the gates show the influence of the royal construction works at Buda and that of the Parler workshop in Prague. The vault of the church was finished before 1440 by masters who studied in Vienna. The building at Kassa created a special style, which spread all over the country in the 1420s. The Franciscan church of Kassa was built under the influence of the parish church, but the style of Kassa was copied in Northern-East Hungary, in Transylvania on the nave of the St Michael church of Kolozsvár, the parish church of Brasso and the mountain church of Segesvár, in Krakow on the Augustine church of Kazimierzi. ###### The Western part of the country The cathedral of Győr was totally rebuilt by Bishop John Hédervári (1386-1415) at the beginning of the 15th century. He added a richly elaborated chapel to the southern side of the three-nave new building with twin towers on its western side. The St James parish church of Kőszeg was reconstructed by the Garais into a three-nave church hall with a longitudinal chancel. The St Mark church of Zagreb is similar to this, which was built at the turn of the century. Its 15th-century gates resembles that of the Garai chapel at Buda. Eberhard, Bishop of Zagreb, started the building of the nave of the cathedral of Zagreb between 1410-1419, which was continued by his successor, John (1421-1433). The other face of the architecture of Transdanubia, the style of the churches of small market towns, was represented by the parish church of Berhida. ###### The architecture of Upper-Hungary The constructions of the new church hall of the abbacy and the monastery of Garamszentbenedek started at the end of the 14th century or at the beginning of the 15th century. In Eperjes a similar, but rather irregular hall-like chancel was added to the parish church after 1391. The parish churches of the market towns of the Szepesség (for example, Szepesbéla, Kakaslomnic) were vaulted with an arch standing on a central pillar or row of pillars, copying Czech and Polish models. Such vaults were built on the parish churches of Körmöcbánya and Tar and probably the Franciscan church of Kassa as well. From among monasteries which were the burial places of aristocratic families voivode Stibor's Augustine church of Vágújhely is a special one, as it follows Charles the Great's church of Prague (and indirectly the palace chapel of Aachen). The Pauline churches of Kurithán (after 1419) and Gönc (1429) are traditional buildings. ##### Fine arts ###### Stone cutting In stone cutting the soft style of the first decade of the 15th century is represented by the popular Pieta sculptures (Mary crying over the dead Christ). The most beautiful one survived from Nagyszeben. The most significant sculpture ensemble of the second - third decades of the 15th century is the group of Gothic sculptures found in Buda in 1974. The masters of these sculptures came from different regions of Europe and represented the most modern styles of the period. The sculptures which were found in the St Sigismund church were made by them, just like the girl's head found in the royal palace. There are findings from the Church of Our Lady of Buda as well, they originate from the beginning of the 15th century. The most significant pieces of contemporary tomb-stone cutting are the figurative red marble Stibor tomb-stones. ###### Wood cutting and altars The most important Hungarian wood cutting relic of the soft style was made in the 1410s, it was the altarpiece of Kislomnic. The Magdolna sculpture of Dénesfalva and the St Dorothy sculpture of Barka represent a similarly graceful style. The Miserable Christ of Fonyód shows common features with the sculpture findings from Buda. The second Madonna of Toporc has the elements of late Gothic style. The first painted altars survived from the beginning of the 15th century. The Jeremy tabloid of Pónik and the triptychon built into the St Catherine altar of Lőcse and the Calvary altar of Garamszentbenedek painted by Thomas Kolozsvári in 1427 - which is the most significant relic of the Hungarian soft style - were all made under the influence of Czech painting. The art of the neighbouring Austrian territories defined the style of the altar of Németújvár. Unfortunately only a cut picture of the spinning Mary survived from it. ###### Wall painting The influence of Italian arts played an important role at the beginning of the 15th century, as shown by the fragments of the wall paintings of the parish church of Pest or the frescos of Rimabrezo. Small churches in the countryside were decorated by the masters of wandering painting workshops, the style of which was strongly provinicialised. The Highland example of the Central European soft style was the 1415 cycle of frescos of the parish church of Pónik. The most important relic of this style was the 'Resurrection' picture of the St Elisabeth church of Kassa from the 1420s. We can see the influence of Czech painting on the rich fresco decorations of the church in the Transylvanian Almakerék. The representation of the St Ladislaus legend remained quite popular; a good example of this was the fresco from Székelyderzs from 1419. ###### Book painting The Czech soft style strongly influenced the Hungarian book painting of the beginning of the 15th century. Besides rich ornamentations, the 'D' missale of the Pozsony prepostery was decorated with soft figurative initials. A Canon picture, representing the crucifixion of Christ, originates from another Pozsony missale. The law book of Körmöcbánya was also richly decorated. The 1423 missale of smith guild of Vác, decorated by illuminator John, is a beautiful relic. The starting initial of this is decorated with the picture of St Eligius, the patron saint of the smiths. The beautiful breviary of George Pálóczy, the Archbishop of Esztergom (1423-1439), also survived. During his travels, King Sigismund issued several decorative escutcheoned letters, and these were decorated by the available local painters. ###### Applied arts The textile art of the Sigismund age is represented by many chasubles, which survived from the period. A nicely cut saddle decorated with the emblem of the Dragon order proves that there was a developed court culture at King Sigismund's court. An early memory of the typical Hungarian wired enamel technique was King St Ladislaus's herm (head relic holder). The chalice of Torna is covered with cut decoration. Several bronze baptising pools - which followed 14th-century traditions - were cast in the Highland and Transylvania. Stove-making was also booming in the Sigismund age. Various, colourful tile stoves were built not only in the royal court, but also in castles, mansions or city houses. ### THE HISTORY OF MUSIC #### The conditions of music life After the age of the Árpád dynasty there were significant changes in Hungary both in political-economic life and the intellectual sphere and music also underwent a big change. The process of desintegration of the country (the Tartar attack, inner anarchy) was stopped by Charles I's policy directed to Western Europe, so the 14th century brought about a real cultural prosperity. Through the dynastic relations of the Angevine rulers the intellectual horizon was broadened towards the west. With the boom in mining and trade new city centers were born (especially in Upper Hungary and Transylvania), and the economic prosperity provided new chances for music, too. Though the network of cities was not as dense as in Western Europe, and could not result in the concentration of intellectuals, it still was the golden age of music in the late Middle Ages. Music life in the age shows a unified picture concerning music education and practice. #### New data about music life The number of relics of musical notation increased in that age. Charters and bills also prove that there was a permanent and intensive music life in churches and public life as well. Besides the daily mass and vespera, schools provided the music service for the foundation and Mary masses, burial services and funerals. It meant at least 3-4 hours of singing in the church itself. Certain movements are mentioned by the foundation masses: for example, the popular Salve Regina or from the newer, more modern pieces the Ave verum corpus. As the majority of the foundations were in Upper Hungary, it is possible that their growing number reflects more comfortable and wealthy bourgeois life style. Singing students could be heard outside the church, too: they participated in processions or pompous celebrations (greetings, elections). Besides the Gregorian movements they performed polyphonic pieces and chants as well. Their greeting activity (greeting songs) - which were performed by simple clergymen or peasants - survived till today as a folk tradition (New Year's greeting song, name-day greeting songs). Thanks to this tradition the melodies of medieval greeting songs could survive. #### Joculators and instrumental musicians While the word joculator referred to both the singers of heroic legends and the entertaining singers in the past, its real meaning gradually shifted towards the second meaning. The most popular group of instrumental musicians was that of the trumpet players (together with the drummers), who became the sounding symbols of lords and royal power. (For example, they accompanied Sigismund on his visit to France, or hunts.) In cities they were employed at festivals or as tower guards. Organs were used in Hungarian churches from the 14th century (organists were usually organ builders as well). Franciscan, Dominican and Paulian monks were very good at playing this instrument. Parallel with the enrichment of the cities there is more and more data about the use of organs since the 15th century. At this time organs were not used to accompany singing, but instead to decorate the melody or according to the so-called alternative use, singing and instrumental music altered from verse to verse. There were many names for instrumental players from the 14th century - such as drummer, whistler, fiddler, bugler, luter, fluter - but these were job-names and not family names. The different layers of musicians were the following: village musicians, musicians employed in the city, musicians employed by landlords or prelates (or maybe by the King), wandering musicians. Memories of musical notation did not survive, but in the light of secondary data "we can talk about a network of musicians, which ensnared the whole country". #### Music at the royal court The royal court was one of the most significant centres of artistic music. Its golden age was the age of King Matthias, reaching the level of Western-European capellas. The first step towards this was taken by the Angevine dynasty. By Sigismund's age the role of court music became very important. Sigismund, who had the Buda palace rebuilt and the royal chapel reorganised, thought it was important that he would be accompanied on his travels by the famous minnesänger, Oscar von Wolkenstein. They were almost friends. On his diplomatic travels he took his capella with himself - just as at the synod of Constanz - as a musical symbol of his power. The capella had its own school, organ player and wind instrument players, so they could perform polyphonic music. However, their main task was to perform Gregorian songs during services. The situation of Gregorian music in the late Middle Ages Gregorian music kept its ruling position in the late Middle Ages as well. It was still taught in schools, and its theoretical and practical knowledge was essential to elementary education. In certain genres there was a compositional growth: in the mass there were new movements besides the alleluyas and sequences. These were the ordinarium movements and the nicer reading tones. With the increase of the number of the saints new song cycles appeared in the office through adoption (import), and it satisfied the local spiritual needs. The notes of liturgic books also refer to this fact at the appropriate saints: "Own office - if you have it in your book". #### Books and musical notation About 30 unbroken codices and hundreds of fragments survived from the 14-15th centuries, referring to a rich literacy. The majority of manuscripts were small-size and made by simple hands, but they were useful manuals containing real musical notes, which were followed by large decorative codices in the next age. The golden age of Hungarian musical note writing was the 14th century. It is proved by the Missale notatum (service book with musical notes) of Esztergom, which is kept in Pozsony. Its notation, liturgic order and the totality of melody variants makes this book the most reliable manuscript of central Hungarian traditions. Besides Hungarian notation, a modern notation appeared in the 14th century on the borderline, which was developed from a Lotharingian notation type. It was strongly partitioned, 'Gothisised' writing built from big-size elements. It was called the "Metzigothic musical notation." For example, the Graduale of Upper Hungary was written with this kind of notation, and we can find it in the codices of Pozsony from the 14th century, and in some manuscripts from Kassa, Kolozsvár and Brasso. On north-western territories the Czech musical notation was used - the influence of this can be seen, for example, on the notation of the second Antiphony of Esztergom. Besides the centers that kept the Esztergom traditions, Hungarian music writing was preserved by the Pauline order, who tried to develop it into a big-size codex-writing later. The influence of Metzigothic notation on Hungarian music writing could be already felt in the 14th century, and this influence became even stronger in the 15th century. The change of music writing reflects a kind of inner view, according to which attention was drawn to the notes themselves, and the connection between the groups of notes (neuma) became looser. The direction of writing also changed: instead of the rows of points of clear Hungarian notation, which went downwards, this writing went from left to right, in accordance with order they followed one another in time. This mixed notation is considered a Hungarian innovation; it includes the punctual, clear Metzigothic notation and the flexibile and drawing-like Hungarian notation. It was used from the first third of the 15th century till the middle of the 16th century, first of all in decorated big choir books. Its significance is shown by the fact that this musical notation was used in the major Hungarian codices (for example, the first Antiphony of Esztergom and the Graduale of Futak). Franciscan and Dominican service books from the turn of the 14-15th centuries differ from the above mentioned Hungarian liturgical-musical traditions in their content and musical notation. Their quadrate musical notation (square note forms) and melody variants follow the foreign models of their centralised orders and not the local tradition. In contrast to these, the four 15th-century antiphonies of Pozsony were written with the Metzigothic notation, but they followed the Esztergom traditions, which was considered the main line of medieval Hungarian music writing. #### Medieval poliphony In contrast to the great number of Gregorian codices, there are only a few poliphonic memories. Several 14th-century fragments and the statue of the Pauline order - which banned poliphony - proves the living practice of poliphony. A source from the Upper Hungary, which originates from the beginning of the 15th century, includes several movements. It is called a 'fragment from the Sigismund age'. 14-15th-century sources contain out-of-fashion European musical styles, which were very popular a few hundred years before. Some of these techniques were known in the West already at the turn of the millennium. It was a special, solemn performance, for example, if the solistic parts of a Gregorian chant were dressed in a richer melody (first by improvisation). The basic principle of melodies for two or three voices, which were built on fourths and fifths, are the parallel and opposite movements of the melody. The influence of Metzigothic notation on Hungarian music writing could be already felt in the 14th century, and this influence became even stronger in the 15th century. The change of music writing reflects a kind of inner view, according to which attention was drawn to the notes themselves, and the connection between the groups of notes (neuma) became looser. The direction of writing also changed: instead of the rows of points of clear Hungarian notation, which went downwards, this writing went from left to right, in accordance with order they followed one another in time. This mixed notation is considered a Hungarian innovation; it includes the punctual, clear Metzigothic notation and the flexibile and drawing-like Hungarian notation. It was used from the first third of the 15th century till the middle of the 16th century, first of all in decorated big choir books. Its significance is shown by the fact that this musical notation was used in the major Hungarian codices (for example, the first Antiphony of Esztergom and the Graduale of Futak). Franciscan and Dominican service books from the turn of the 14-15th centuries differ from the above mentioned Hungarian liturgical-musical traditions in their content and musical notation. Their quadrate musical notation (square note forms) and melody variants follow the foreign models of their centralised orders and not the local tradition. In contrast to these, the four 15th-century antiphonies of Pozsony were written with the Metzigothic notation, but they followed the Esztergom traditions, which was considered the main line of medieval Hungarian music writing. Besides celebrational readings, popular tropes or - as in a Franciscan codex - the alleluya movement of the mass could also be decorated like this. If a rhythmic opposite melody was composed to a non-liturgic, but free melody, it resulted in a more modern tone, even if the usage of sound intervals followed the old traditions (based on fourths, fifths or octaves). Such rhythmic poliphonic chants were not considered liturgic music in a narrow sense, but they enriched the musical art of clerical intellectuals. However, the addition of rhythmic opposite melodies to Gregorian melodies fitted the liturgy and it was nearly as good as the compositional, 'scientific' style of the age. #### Folk songs in the mother tongue The first recorded Hungarian folk song was the most popular Easter song in Europe: "Christ resurrected from his great pain". This can be read on the side of the pages of the Fragment from the Sigismund age in four languages: in Hungarian, Czech, German and Polish. (It was probably sung in the mother tongue at Easter.) This movement was originally added to the Victimae pashali sequence, or it was sung by the audience at the end of the night office, after the resurrection play (Easter play). Another early Hungarian folk song was the Hungarian Te Deum, though it was first recorded in the Peer codex around 1500, but this refers to the spread of this song. Presumably it was sung already in the 15th century. Besides the Easter song and the Te Deum, we can mention the Christmas song Shepherds [Csordapásztorok], which was the greeting song (telling about the forthcoming feast) of medieval students (in the text we can find references to King Sigismund's "fresh palace"). Possibly the Easter song Christ resurrected on that day was also sung in that period, since its Latin text was also written on the pages of the Fragments from the Sigismund age. The following centuries are much richer in folk songs sung in the mother tongue. #### Medieval epic songs Memories of musical notation did not survive about epic songs. The St Ladislaus song is known from a 16th-century source, the Peer codex, though the roots of its melody go back to the Middle Ages. The dirges of Hungarian folk music underwent a development (verses connected to the text of funeral songs, prayers, ballads and miserable songs), which might have preserved a certain public epic style, whose later variants were the 16-17th-century historical songs. #### The medieval layers of Hungarian folk music The rich customary culture, which was booming in the Middle Ages - a significant part of which became folk traditions by today - preserved many melodies. Some of them were organised into a real cycle, such as the melodies of Midsummer Night from the region of Zobor. The oldish songs of this certainly originate from the Middle Ages. Archaic customary melodies had some common features with Gregorian songs, as a result of the similar way of musical thinking, and not because they influenced each other. The ceremonious major hexachord melodies accompanying children's games (bridge, procession or pair games) might also originate from the Middle Ages, just like the music of the dramatic plays of cultic men's companies, the one-time guilds. The memory of medieval greeting song was preserved by the chants of young men or children. The basic layer of Gregory procession is also of medieval origin. The elements of the acoustics of medieval village-towns were the cries of night guards such as the recitative verse learning at school. The traces of this latter one were preserved by the rhymes of Transylvanian Nativity plays and the Advent host carrying. According to Lajos Vargyas the oldest group of Hungarian ballads originates from 14th-century folk poetry. As he had found only French parallels to these, he thought this influence might have come from that direction, through the Vallon settlers. There is closer European relation to Hungarian shepherd songs. The Western-European counterparts of the rhythm of shepherd songs is the vagant lines, so shepherd songs preserved the musical material of the songs of medieval entertainers, joculators. Similarly the Bethlehem shepherd dance or the dance motifs of Whitsun dances may have preserved medieval dance music. Data prove that the ancient dirges survived in the Middle Ages, too (for example, Charles I's mourning songs). The melodies of those dirges may have been the same that we know today. Ambitus melodies became popular at this time and a great number of stanzic folk songs might have separated from dirges during this period, too. ### THE HISTORY OF DANCE #### Introduction The 150 years between 1300 and 1400 saw a boom in the ecclesiastic arts, the development of court arts and city culture. In Hungary this development was very specific - typical of Eastern Europe - and was connected to the royal court because the development of towns was late there were few aristocratic courts suitable for promoting court culture. During the reign of the three significant rulers - Charles I, Louis the Great and especially Sigismund - the Hungarian royal court became an important political and cultural centre, and this enabled the country to adopt the most beautiful forms of European arts. If we want to form an opinion about the whole of contemporary culture, we have to consider the elements of local culture - which are rarely mentioned by the sources. It is especially true for dance culture, which has only a few sources, in contrast to music, literature and fine arts. #### The written sources of dance culture Relics of linguistic history play an important role among references to the dance culture of the age. With the increase in the number of sources in the Hungarian language there are more and more common Hungarian, or international words with reference to dance. The word 'dance' appears first in the language in 1350 as an international loan word, which probably meant pair dances accompanied by instrumental music - according to the contemporary European usage of the word. The Schlägl list of words is from 1405, which matches the word 'tombás' [entertainer] with three Latin expressions: cantatrix, gestulator, palpanist. This does not mean that the composer of this list of words was inaccurate, but it refers to the various activities of the 'tombás' (entertainer, minstrel, puppet player). The act of dancing is expressed with the word 'tombol, tomb' [entertain, entertainment] in many sources, probably with the meaning jumping dance. #### Heavenly and earthly love The special feature of the development of 14-15th-century European culture is that court arts became more and more independent in contrast to ecclesiastic arts. In the field of dance this process took place besides the ban of dance practice - which was declared profane - and the spread of idealised dance symbols (King David's dance, Salome's dance). With some exceptions, dance was not part of church services any more, so it did not have advantages that religious songs and poetry had in contemporary schools. No one was engaged in making dance an independent art, creating its literacy, or including its artistic forms into the canon. Dance, however, could stand its ground under such circumstances, too as the basic form of expression of European culture. As an important part of court culture and way of life it was booming. The code of behaviour and movements, which defined European dance culture and social life, was gradually developing. Its cradle was the 12th-century Provance, its midwife was the 14th-century Italy, its master was the 15th-century Burgundy, and it spread throughout Europe. We can feel the ancient Greek and Latin culture in its origins, and later the influence of Syrian, Old Hebrew, Arabic and other Oriental cultures is also significant. Experiences obtained during the crusades also helped its development. In medieval Europe the most important virtues were polite and complacent behaviour, abstinent love, skillfulness, self-control, good taste and reliability besides the admiration of women and loyal service to the liege lord. In dance, these virtues were embodied by solemn and firm posture, and circle dances performed with reserved movements and chaste, abstinent behaviour. The most beautiful part of knightly service was love, entertaining and courting (Amor, Joi, Cortesia). All these were for the sake of the lady of the castle. Each knight had his chosen lady, whom he escorted and served. This lady reigned over the knight's heart. The scene of the service, the garden of love (cour d'amour) was the castle, suitable for social life, where the knights could practise polite behaviour through court dances and songs in the company of the lady and her maids of honour. The typical figures of the garden of love were the troubadurs, the talented cultivators of music, singing and dancing. They often amused their audience with dance performances (laudas, ballads), masks, satirical songs, rebuking songs and romances. Luxurious courts, similar to western courts, and the possibility of court life developed in Hungary, too, during the reign of the Angevine kings and especially Sigismund. Its scenes were royal residences: Esztergom, Visegrád, Buda and Diósgyőr. There were plenty of family happenings, coronations, peace-makings, receptions of ministers and diplomatic meetings, which provided opportunity for pompous feasts, tournaments and dances. Unfortunatelly there are no descriptions, official or private letters about these, and contemporary account books do not mention dances either. We must mention the representations in the frescos of Runkelstein because of their references to the Hungarians, where Louis the Great's mother, Queen Elisabeth, dances a marching dance with the Bavarian Prince, Melchior and the members of his court. This dance could be the local variant of the popular marching dance - which used slow steps - (Tanz, Hofetanc, Basse danse), usually followed by a quicker leaping dance combined with pantomime-like elements, in concert with the tradition of the age. Similar dances might have been danced at the celebration following the coronation of King Sigismund in 1387, and at the great meeting of European knights at Buda in 1396. Several contemporary sources mention the ruler's affection for dance. According to one of them, in 1411 the king wanted to court the favour of a bourgeois girl with dance against Prince Frederick in Innsbruck. Another source mentions that even at the age of 66, he was an enthusiastic dancer at a burgher feast in Augsburg. In 1432, when he was crowned emperor, there were pompous celebrations in Rome, and the Hungarian members of his escort tried to make these memorable in various ways. Besides these, several other sources prove that the clothing, musical instruments and way of dancing of the Hungarians - as they were different - attracted the attention of the other peoples. It is known that János Hunyady, when he was in Italy with King Sigismund in 1433-1434, was the focus of attention because of the way he danced. All the dignitary ladies wanted to dance with him, even the king himself became envious. The Aachen pilgrimages of the Hungarians had similar effects on the foreigners, where they became famous for their spectacular marches, bear-leading and street dances. Beginning from the 14th century in Western Europe the scene of secular dance life expanded from royal courts to the cities, where the burghers danced their own dances and dances learnt at courts at reserved dancing places - which were maintained at public expense - under the strict control of the aldermen. This is proved by the representations of brides' chests from Florence from the early 15th century. In these, the rich citizens dance a marching dance accompanied by instrumental music. A similar scene can be seen on the wall-painting of a contemporary house in the Buda castle, where the dancers are followed by a jester wearing a jester's cap. #### Profane dances In Dante's Comedy (La Commedia) the heavenly Estates of the Realm, the armies of the saved dance the elegant ruota and gira dances in Paradise, while the damned danced ridda and tresca - that is peasant dances - in Hell. This idea shows the philosophy of the age concerning the various new and traditional dances. (This evaluation may have been known in Hungary, too, since Dante's work could be found in Louis the Great's library. The Latin translation of the Comedy was directly dedicated to King Sigismund by the translator.) In spite of the underestimation and frequent bans, peasant dances survived in Hungary, mixed with the newly acquired European traditions. By the 15th century the tradition of carnivals, Whitsun, lighting fires on Midsummer Night and chanting at Christmas were spread in Hungary, too. Besides the new forms of traditions in connection with family celebrations and working these were the main occasions for dancing. A source from 1499 from Pelbart's preaching from Temesvár - though it might refer to an earlier practice - mentioned the case of women participating in the mask carnival near the river Kapos, one of whom was captured from the dance by a demon - as a punishment. It seems that there were no independent, entertaining occasions for dance in contemporary peasant communities similar to court and city celebrations, which were very popular. The system of genres did not develop in traditional dance during the Middle Ages, which is so typical of today's folk dances. According to the sources there were only two genres: joint chain-circle dances accompanied with singing, which were based on slow steps (there could be different forms for women, men and mixed companies); and dances based on leaping-stamping-throbbing movements, which appeared in various forms (solo, paired, group, men's, women's dances, performed with instruments or without those, in masks or without masks). These developing genres were stuck together by different rhythmical, formal and functional frames. |