# HISTORY #### FIGHTS FOR THE THRONE AND CONSOLIDATION THE LAST DECADES OF THE EARLY KINGDOM THE AGE OF THE TARTAR INVASION THE LAST KINGS OF THE ÁRPÁD DYNASTY ### FIGHTS FOR THE THRONE AND CONSOLIDATION #### The First Fights for the Throne Following King St Stephen's death, his nominated heir, Peter took up his uncle's throne without difficulties. King Peter's (1038-1041) measures appeared to continue the process started by Stephen: he founded churches, issued laws and charters, minted money, and imposed taxes on people. In contrast to Stephen, he acted with impatient violence, ignoring the peculiarities of the situation in Hungary, subsequently creating irreconcilable conflicts between the king and the whole of Hungarian society. The church leaders and secular dignitaries conspired against Peter, whom they called a tyrant, and soon dethroned him. Peter fled together with his family to the German king, Henry III, hoping that Henry would support him in his attempt to regain his power. In place of Peter, Stephen's brother-in-law, Samuel (who probably descends from the family of the Khabar chieftains) was chosen to be king by the dignitaries (1041-1044). Some people now expected the restoration of tribal freedom, others the renewal of Stephen's well-balanced policy. Samuel fell short of these ambiguous expectations, and his position was worsened by the fact that he had to face Henry III's military threat, who supported Peter. Samuel did not succeed in stopping Henry's intervention - both his military actions and his peace-negotiations failed. His opponents within Hungary were slaughtered. Then Henry attacked the country and Samuel lost a battle at Ménfő, where he was killed as he fled. King Peter (1044-1046), regaining his power with German support, showed his gratitude to Henry III by taking an oath of vassalage to him. So Hungary became a vassal state, which was the complete denial of King Stephen's policy. After the bloody revenge of the unsuccessful conspiracies of the dignitaries, a popular rising put an end to Peter's rule in 1046. While the leading noblemen of the country were discussing the problems of removing Peter and calling Vazul's sons - who lived in exile - back to the country, people in the region beyond the river Tisza organised a revolt with the leadership of the pagan Vata. It was generally considered as a pagan revolt against the institutions and representatives of both the state and the church. King Peter was blinded after he was captured, and died soon after. Another victim of the pagan revolt was an outstanding figure of the age, Gellért - bishop of Csanád county, who went to welcome the returning Vazul-sons. The empty throne was taken by Vazul's middle son, prince Andrew; his elder brother, Levente was pushed into the background. King Andrew I (1046-1060) suppressed the pagan riot and governed the country following the example of Stephen. He founded an abbey in Tihany, and its deed of foundation is the first Hungarian charter which survives in the original version. We can read several Hungarian words and a segment of a sentence in its Latin text, making this charter a prestigious linguistic record. Andrew I called back his younger brother, prince Béla, to return home from Poland around 1048. Andrew, who had no children at the time, nominated Béla as his heir and organised the ducate for him. The collaboration of the two brothers was untroubled for a long time. They jointly repelled Henry III's attack in 1051 together. With this attack Henry hoped to revenge Peter's death and reestablish Hungary's feudal dependance upon Germany. The relationship of Andrew and Béla worsened when in 1058 the king made his own son, Salamon, his heir, dismissing Béla. The hostility between the two brothers did not end even following their meeting at Várkony, and soon they started a war against each other. Andrew lost a battle, and he died from his injuries. His family escaped to the German ruler, Henry IV. Béla I (1060-1063) - like Samuel - ruled the country under the shadow of a possible German attack. Although this attack was late in coming, there were new problems arising inside the country. The representatives of common people, who gathered at Székesfehérvár, clamoured against Christianity, that is why this movement is usually called the second pagan revolt. The rebels were dispersed by Béla, who also took measures for the benefit of common people: he decreased prices and taxes, and abolished debts. At the time of the German attack, finally launched in 1063, Béla suffered a serious accident, and he died soon. His sons (Géza, Ladislaus and Lampert) escaped to Poland, as Salamon returned to the country together with the Germans. #### The King and the Princes Salamon (1063-1070) richly rewarded Henry IV for helping him in regaining his throne - the so-called "Attila sabre" might have been taken to Germany from the treasury of the Árpád dynasty at that time - though he did not take an oath of vassalage. After the troops had left, Béla's sons entered the country, but this time there was no fighting. The dignitaries mediated between the nephews and signed a treaty, according to which Salamon reigned as a king, and the princes regained their father's one-time ducate. The king and the princes joined together to defeat the Pechenegs, who attacked the country in 1068. The story - which had already been popular in the Middle Ages - about the fight between prince Ladislaus and the "Cuman" warrior, who abducted young girls, can be connected to this battle at Kerlés. The good relationship between the king and the princes deteriorated in 1071. In all probability Prince Géza had enough of his inferior role, but it is also true that Salamon was incited against the princes by his closest confidant, Vid. In the first battle of this inevitable clash, Salamon defeated prince Géza. Meanwhile Prince Ladislaus arrived at the head of the Czech auxiliaries, and under his command Béla's son triumphed over Salamon at the battle of Mogyoród. The king was pushed back to the region of Moson and Pozsony, the rest of the country was ruled by Géza. Now the dispositioned Salamon was ready to become a vassal to Henry IV in return for his support, but the German ruler was absorbed in investiture fights, the conflict with the Pope. King Géza I (1074-77) found a supporter in the person of the Byzantine emperor, who sent him a crown - the bottom part of the present Holy Crown, known as the "Greek crown". Pope Gregory VII, while couching the feudal demands of the Holy See towards Hungary, after a little hesitation acknowledged the legitimacy of Géza's kingdom. This is why Hungary - in contrast to Henry IV, who patronised Salamon - supported Rome in the fight between papacy and the Western emperors. During his short reign Géza was unable to do anything about Salamon, it was left to his younger brother, Ladislaus, who was crowned to be king as his heir. Ladislaus I (1077-1095) made Salamon surrender - sometimes by the help of armed forces, sometimes by treaties - but he was arrested when he organised a plot against the king. In 1083 Ladislaus canonised the first Hungarian saints, such as the state-founder Stephen and his son, Imre (Emeric), the martyr bishop Gellért (Gerald) and two hermits. This way he intended to prove that Hungary held a worthy place within the community of the Christian states. As part of the ceremonies Ladislaus freed Salamon, who left the country and lived among the Pechenegs until his death. #### Consolidation at the Turn of the 11-12th Centuries The internal problems caused by continuous warfare in the preceding decades were smoothed over during Ladislaus's reign. This was achieved by his very strict laws. Due to Ladislaus's strict government the country regained its strength, and even became a conquering power - a new aspect to the history of the state. In 1091 Ladislaus, intervening in a local Croatian war occupied the region along the Adriatic coast. He also founded a bishopric in Zagreb, Slavonia - though the date is unknown. Since Croatia was the vassal of the Pope, following the Hungarian occupation the relationship between the papacy and Hungary became tense. After Ladislaus's death the sons of his elder brother, Géza I, (Coloman and Álmos) were competing for the throne. Finally Coloman ascended the throne (1096-1116) and Álmos had to be satisfied with leading the ducate. But he was not content with his inferior position, so he made several attempts to seize power during Coloman's reign. Sometimes he organised plots against Coloman, at other times he tried to find supporters abroad, but finally he gave up. Coloman, who initially was very patient and lenient towards his brother's actions, finally lost his temper and had Álmos and his young son, Béla blinded - probably in 1115. The crippled princes spent the rest of their lives in a convent at Dömös, which was founded by Álmos himself, in 1108. Coloman was judged unfavourably by the next generations because of the unfortunate disputes with Álmos, although he proved a successful ruler. He continued to enact laws, started by Ladislaus I, he reformed the taxation system and the structure of the army, reorganised the institutes of legislation and regulated certain rights of possession. He enlarged the Hungarian church body with the foundation of the bishopric of Nyitra, he reestablished Hungarian superiority in Croatia - which became independent for a very short period of time -, and he occupied a certain part of Dalmatia as well. He reconciled the papacy by dispensing with his right to appoint prelates. Coloman was succeded on the throne by his son, Stephen II (1116-1131). His foreign policy was unsuccessful and there was general discontent during his reign. Usurpers tried to take over the throne several times, including even the blind prince Álmos. After the failure of his attempt to seize royal power, Álmos fled to Byzantium. In his thirst for revenge, king Stephen II launched a series of war against Byzantium. Álmos's son, Béla, stayed in Hungary, and king Stephen II learned of the whereabouts of his nephew. He brought him into his court and took care of him worthily. The Premontrian order settled down in Hungary during the reign of Stephen II, and the king was presumably buried in their monastery at Váradhegyfok. ### THE LAST DECADES OF THE EARLY KINGDOM #### An Activated Foreign Policy As king Stephen II did not have any heirs, Béla II (1131-1141) was crowned as king. Instead of the blind ruler, his wife, the Serbian Ilona governed the country. Béla and Ilona had their political enemies slaughtered on two occasions: first the dignitaries supporting Coloman, who were suspected of participating in the king's blinding, then the supporters of a usurper, who called himself Boris and claimed that he was Coloman's son. Béla tried to expand the territory of the country over to the Balkans, and he was the first Hungarian king bearing the title of "King of Rama", signifying power over Bosnia. After Béla's sudden death his young son, Géza II (1141-1162) followed him on the throne, but his uncle (on his mother's side), Belos, governed the country. The adult Géza led a very active foreign policy. He launched many military campaigns in Italy, intervened in German local policy and supported the rebellion of the Serbs against Byzantium. His activity was moderated by two factors: firstly, the two neighbouring states were ruled by the two most outstanding rulers of the age - Frederick I , the German emperor and Manuel, the Byzantine emperor - and secondly, his power at home was weakened by the newly emerging fights for the throne. He had to cope with several claims for the throne during his reign, first that of Boris, then those of his own brothers, Ladislaus and Stephen. #### In the Shadow of Byzantium Princes Ladislaus and Stephen found a powerful supporter in Manuel, the Byzantine emperor. After Géza's death Stephen III (1162-1172) was crowned in vein, and the king soon had to escape. From among his uncles, Ladislaus II reigned for half a year (1162-63), then Stephen IV for some months (1163). The battle of Székesfehérvár put an end to the reign of the latter one, and brought the victory of Stephen III's army. Stephen IV fled to Byzantium again, and made several attempts to return - without success. After taking back his country Stephen III continued his wars against Byzantium, when finally his troops suffered a defeat at Zimony in 1167. At the time of the battles for the throne, the responsible archbishop of Esztergom, Lukas played an important political role. He was the first Hungarian prelate, and was educated at the university of Paris. As the relentless warrior of gregorianism, Lukas tried to persuade Hungary to support Rome in the fight between papacy and the western emperors. He convinced both Géza II and Stephen III that they should give up their rights of investiture. Being a supporter of Stephen III, he refused to crown Ladislaus II and Stephen IV king, and excommunicated the pretenders, who in turn put him in prison. When Stephen III took hold of church property, he did not hesitate to excommunicate the king with the purpose of making him more lenient. #### Golden Age at the End of the 12th Century After Stephen III's death his two brothers, the younger Géza and Béla - who had been living in Byzantium for a long time - fought for the throne. The Queen Mother supported Géza, but the dignitaries preferred Béla. The prince went into Constantinople in compliance with a treaty, as the fiancé of the daughter of the Byzantine emperor, Manuel. Manuel's mother was Ladislaus I's daughter, Piroska, who was regarded a saint in Byzantium, and the emperor had serious plans with Béla, called Alexios in Byzantium. As he did not have a son, Béla was appointed as his heir, and he provided suitable education for him. Later however, Manuel got a son, so he changed his plans concerning Béla. When a delegation came to take Béla back to Hungary, he supported the idea of his relative becoming king of Hungary. In the fight for the throne the returning Béla defeated his younger brother, Géza, who died in exile in Byzantium. The years of Béla III's reign (1172-1196) passed peacefully. He had a splendid castle built in Esztergom, he founded several monasteries contributing to the spread of the Cistercian order in Hungary, and he canonised Ladislaus I in 1192. Béla III's rule is significant from the point of view of history of culture: people started going to university in Paris, royal chancellery was in the making, and the activity of credible places (loca credibilia) also developed. Towards the end of his rule the Pray-codex was compiled, which preserved one of the earliest texts in Hungarian, the "Halotti Beszéd és Könyörgés" (Funeral Oration and Prayer). In the beginning Béla III maintained his good relationship both with the Papacy and the Byzantine Empire. After emperor Manuel's death, however, he reoccupied Dalmatia, which fell under Byzantine rule earlier, like his ancestors, he started to conduct an aggressive foreign policy. While in the preceding decades the military campaigns against Russia were the outcomes of dynastic relationships set up by royal marriages, Béla wanted to conquer the neighbouring Russian principality, Halics for his younger son, later Andrew II. He managed to conquer it for a short period of time, but occupying Halics remained the main objective of the foreign policy of the Árpád dynasty in the following decades. Béla III left his throne to his elder son, Imre [Emeric] (1196-1204), Andrew should have kept his father's promise as a crusader. Prince Andrew, however, intended to rule, and rebelled against his brother several times. They had a hostile relationship throughout the years of Emeric's reign. Meanwhile both the king and his younger brother lead campaigns to occupy the Balkans, Emeric even bore the title "King of Serbia". After his death, his small son, Ladislaus III (1204-1205) became king, but only nominally. Power was exercised by his guardian, Andrew. The supporters of the child king took Ladislaus to Austria, to protect him from Andrew, but the boy soon died there. ### THE AGE OF THE TARTAR INVASION #### The New Arrangements Some years after his succession to the throne, Andrew II (1205-1235) started to bring about significant reforms into life. He called these reforms "the new arrangements". The most noticeable element of the king's policy was the giving away of royal possessions in great proportions. The Árpáds rewarded their supporters with land possessions, too, in earlier times, but Andrew changed this practice in many ways. Not only did he give more - much more - than his ancestors, but he also presented the lands of the royal county system, which were almost untouched, as royal land gifts, and the beneficiary had the right to bequeath his gained possession to his heirs. The effects of Andrew II's royal donations were mainly of a social and political nature. With the organisation of the royal county system, the political supremacy of the ruler weakened, and the created gap was filled by the fastly growing secular estates. The relationship between the king and the landowner dignitaries was also modified. Formerly the wealth and power of the dignitaries depended on the offices gained from the king and the income of those. Andrew's donations, however, became the basis of huge private possessions, which brought forth the possibility that in due time landowners could become a self-reliant political factor independent of the king's power. The gifts decreased royal revenues as well. Andrew's solution to this problem was to try to increase his incomes by increasingly tapping the sources belonging to the royal prerogative. He introduced extraordinary taxes and new foreign trade duties, he worsened the quality of money, but he forced people to use it by compulsory exchanges, and he regularly leased the exchange of money and salt trade, which used to be a royal prerogative, and by doing so, he guaranteed a fixed income for the treasury. In the years of the "new arrangement" the treasurer - the person responsible for the finances of the ruler - became one of the most powerful dignitaries of the royal court. Each element of Andrew II's measures violated the interests of either a social group as a whole or its individual members, therefore there was an extensive and multifold opposition to the policy of the "new arrangement". The church was against leasing royal revenues, since those leasing were Jewish and Muslim financiers. Part of the dignitaries who once supported Emeric, were now joined by those people who did not receive big land donations or turned against the king for other reasons. Royal service people were afraid of being given away with the land, and the owners of smaller estates, who were called royal servants, feared that they might lose their independence in the shadow of the fastly growing strata of big landowners. Golden Bulls The hostility against Andrew II took different shapes from time to time. A small group of the dignitaries wanted Géza (Béla III's brother, who died in exile)'s sons to act as usurpers to the throne, but their plan fell through. In 1213 another rebel group tried to assassinate the unpopular queen Gertrude, who supported her own relatives and favourites at the expense of the Hungarian dignitaries. Another group wanted to play off the underaged heir, Béla against his father, insisting upon crowning the prince. After such precedents, in the spring of 1222 the dignitaries who supported Emeric - knowing that crowds of royal servants were on their side - forced Andrew II to issue a charter that was later called the Golden Bull, because of the seal. Some of its regulations were supposed to redress the affronts, others protected the interests of those groups who enforced the launch of the Golden Bull - Andrew II's opposition among the dignitaries and the royal servants - while they also attacked several elements of the policy of the "new arrangement". Temporarily Andrew II retreated, but he did not even consider enforcing those laws then, not even in 1231, when the Golden Bull was renewed. However, the Golden Bull was not totally ineffective. By defining the rights of the royal servants, it contributed to the crystallisation of this social layer, and many centuries later this well-known document of the Árpád age was recorded among the fundamental laws of the "constitution of the nobility". The political tension in the country did not decrease after the Golden Bull had been issued. In the last years of Andrew II's reign there were rebels: partly his son, prince Béla, partly the church - that wanted to protect its own interests against the king - acted against him. The prince was not really successful, but the church managed to enforce to conclude a contract in Bereg in 1233, which redressed their affronts. In spite of difficulties at home, Andrew II led an active foreign policy. He initiated many military campaigns to occupy Halics, without any success. His crusade to the Holy Land in 1217-18 also fell through. His policy concerning the Balkans was quite successful. In 1211 he settled down the German order of Knighthood in Southern Transylvania to protect the country from the nomadic Cumans. The knights, however, tried to establish an independent state, so Andrew II expelled them in 1225. Prince Béla, who governed Transylvania, was very successful in subduing and converting the Cumans. In the first third of the 13th century two provinces, lying east and west from the lower reach of the Danube, called "Szörénység" and "Macsó", became part of the Hungarian Kingdom. #### A Backwards Turn Béla IV (1235-1270), who was crowned after his father's death, made it clear even with his first measures that he wanted to break with his ancestors' policies in every respect. Béla's political ideal was the absolute power of the first Árpáds, and his objective was to restore conditions of the age of Béla III. He took back the "useless and unnecessary royal land donations". He had tried to implement his policy already in his father's life - without any success. After his accession to the throne he started to realise his plan again. This action brought only moderate changes, but the consequences were rather serious. There was such great dissatisfaction with the king's policy that in 1239 Béla had to give up repossessing royal donations. However, the "hostility between the king and the Hungarians" - as the contemporary Rogerius characterised the condition of the country - ceased. The reason for this was the receiving of the Cumans into the country. A big group of Cumans settled down in Hungary in 1239 with Béla's permission and these nomadic Cumans soon got into a quarrel with the local people. Both sides were insulted, but the Hungarians found that in dubious questions their king supported the Cumans. #### The Catastrophe This was the situation in the country at the end of 1240, when the troops of the Mongolians - known as Tartars in Europe - reached the borders. Julianus, who went to search for the Eastern Hungarians, brought reliable news about the launch of a Tartar attack years before that, but the king was engaged in domestic problems, and the people in the country thought the Tartars were a rambling nomadic people. Béla was late to take measures to defend of the country; and matters even worsened when the Cuman leader, Kötöny - who was accused of colluding with the Tartars, though it was an unfair accusation - was massacred in a camp in Pest by the mob. The furious Cumans marched out of the country spreading desolation, but Béla IV lost a powerful army. In the spring of 1241 the Tartars launched attacks on the unprepared country from three directions. Béla IV tried to attack their main army with his troops, but he suffered a catastrophic defeat at Muhi, near the river Sajó. The king's followers saved their ruler with great difficulties, but the majority of his army - there were prelates and dignitaries among them - was lost. By the summer of 1241 the territory the north and east of the river Danube fell into the hands of the Tartars. Only a few fortresses and castles could resist. Béla IV organised the defence of the Danube line, and he desperately tried to solicit help from the West - without success. With the coming of the winter the Tartars crossed the frozen Danube and they tried to find Béla IV. The king had fled to Dalmatia, and the Tartars following his trace rushed through Transdanubia and Slavonia. They failed to capture Béla, and in the spring of 1242 they unexpectedly left the country, which they had ravaged previously. The degree of the Tartar devastation is hard to estimate: the losses of the population might have been 10 to 50%. The greatest damages were suffered in Transylvania and in the Great Plain; while the mountain areas, Transdanubia and Slavonia were quite lucky. After a year of war - as it is usual - hunger decimated the population of the country. #### The Reconstruction of the Country Returning from Dalmatia, after the bitter experiences of the Tartar invasion, Béla realised that his policy was a failure. Instead of confrontations he tried to find the balance between the autonomous development of society and the interests of royal power. His surveys of possession after the Tartar invasion did not intend to restore the formal royal estates any more, but they guaranteed the people's own legal possessions. In his policy he focused on measures to repel a new Tartar attack. He drew a military lesson from the Tartar invasion, so he had stone fortresses built, and with his land donations he motivated his subordinates as well. Resettling the Cumans into the country was another defensive measure. Béla IV's other measures aimed at consolidating the economy of the country. By founding new settlements, or giving privileges to existing ones he created Western-European type cities, i.e. cities with autonomous local governments. One of these was Buda, founded in 1247. His descendants followed this example later, so the main lines of medieval Hungarian network of cities started to take shape in the decades after the Tartar invasion. Béla also reformed the minting of money and customs regulations. He had some new mints set up - in one of these in Slavonia silver denariuses of stable value were minted - and the new customs regulations concerned not only the quantity of goods but also their value. In his foreign policy the king was busy with the case of the neighbouring Babenberg-provinces. The Babenbergs were the rulers of Austria and Styria, and the last male member of the family died in a battle fought against Béla IV in 1246. There were several claims for this valuable province, its fate was finally decided in the fight between the Czech king, Ottocar II and Béla IV. They came to an agreement first, as a result of which South Styria fell under Hungarian rule for a couple of years, but the fights flared up again later, ending with Béla's defeat, so he had to give up his plans to extend his power over to the west. The last years of the aging Béla IV were embittered by conflict with his elder son, Stephen. The exact reasons are not known; contemporary sources suggest several, equally credible answers. Nevertheless it is a fact that the initiator was Stephen, who governed first Transylvania, then Styria, and finally Transylvania again. In 1262 he forced his father to extend his part of the country to the line of the Danube, and then he took up the title "younger king", which was unknown up to that time. The relationship of Béla and Stephen was still not settled, and in 1264 Béla IV sent troops against his son. After the initial successes of these troops Stephen gained victory. The peace-treaty signed in 1266 restored previous conditions, but the tension among the members of the dynasty did not cease. ### THE LAST KINGS OF THE ÁRPÁD DYNASTY #### The Barons and their Dependants After his father's death the younger king became the king of the whole country under the name Stephen V (1270-72) and in spite of the precedents he was the follower of Béla IV's policy. Just as his father, he concentrated on the saving of the remaining royal possessions and the development of the cities. He reaffirmed the majority of his father's city charters and he also issued new ones, for example to Győr. At the same time Stephen, in contrast to Béla IV, was said to be an outstanding soldier, who was able to force back Ottocar II, who wanted to annex certain Western-Hungarian territories to his developing empire. After Stephen V's death the kingdom of the Árpád dynasty experienced one of its biggest crises of its history. The throne was mounted by Stephen's child son, Ladislaus IV (1272-90), but the real power fell into the hands of rival baron groups. The title "baron" - in contrast with modern times - was not yet a hereditary noble title (there was no aristocracy at that time), but it was a word signifying the main royal office-holders. So the notions baron and big landowner dignitary are not identical although in practice most of the dignitaries bore one of the baron honours for a shorter or longer period during their lives. The most powerful dignitaries were continuously bearing baron honours, sometimes even several honours at the same time. The power of the barons was based on their estates, castles (built after the Tartar invasion) and the armies of their dependants. The dependant was a person, who - at least in principle - voluntarily joined a bigger landowner, preferably a baron, as his servant so he could become a member of his lord's family. (They were called "familiáris" in Hungarian.) A dependant could have claims for protection and occasional allotments; in return for these he governed his lord's estates and castles, he substituted him in his honours, and most importantly they went to war together, sometimes against the king himself. The institution of dependants, which spread in the middle of the 13th century, resembles the Western-European institution of vassals, but they are not identical. In the middle of the 13th century Béla IV, and to a smaller extent Stephen V could put the increased power of the barons into his own service, but after 1272 this balance broke up and the barons got out of the control of the central power, which was about to collapse. They intended to unite closed regions and establish districts of power, where there was no other influential power than theirs, not even the king's. For the sake of this cause they fought one another and the king. In this period of private wars violent occupations of lands and other forms of arbitrary measures were most common. #### King Ladislaus, "the Cumanian" Ladislaus IV, who was declared to be of full age in 1277, temporarily stabilised the position of central power with the help of the prelates of the Hungarian church, who suffered greatly from the barons' violence. He also managed to beat off the rebelling of some barons. Foreign policy became more active as well. The German principals chose Rudolf Habsburg to be their king in 1273, who claimed the former Babensberg provinces for himself. In the fight between Ottocar II and Rudolf king Ladislaus IV supported Rudolf, and in 1278 they fought together in the battle of Dürnkrut and defeated Ottocar's army. This victory was the base of the Central-European power of the Habsburg dynasty. The conflict with the Cumans put an end to Ladislaus IV's experiments for consolidation. In 1279 a papal legate arrived in Hungary to give support to the restoration of the strength of royal power. Instead of helping the king, however, he focused on the violent conversion of the Cumans, who supported the ruler, but lived according to pagan traditions. He forced the issue of the so-called "Cuman Act". Ladislaus IV was rather unwilling to perform this. The debate grew to considerable proportions and led to the rebellion of the Cumans. In the battle of Hód Lake the king put down the rebels, but after that he turned his back on state affairs and lived among his beloved Cumans until his death. Central power practically ceased to exist: the fate of the country fell into the hands of the rivalling baron groups. After the death of Ladislaus, called contemptuously "the Cuman" because of his way of life, many people thought that the Árpád dynasty had become extinct. Dynasties related to them on the female side had their claims for the throne: the Anjous from Naples, the Bavarian Wittelsbachs and the Czech Pnmysles, but the leading dignitaries chose prince Andrew, who was crowned Hungarian king as Andrew III (1290-1301). The prince had his claim for the Hungarian throne as Andrew II's grandson, and if there had been any doubts around the legality of his origin - as his father was said to be born from the adulterous relationship of Andrew II's third wife, Beatrix - the crowning silenced these voices. #### Early Feudalism Andrew III's main supporter was a political group, headed by Lodomér, the archbishop of Esztergom. Lodomér and his circle expected Andrew III to break the power of the barons and they wanted to reach their aim by reconstructing the system of government according to feudal traditions. The system of estates first appeared in Western Europe in the second half of the 13th century. While vassalage divided the interest groups vertically, from the great vassals of the ruler to the vassal's vassal, estates horizontally creating groups with equal rights, and this way power was shared between the ruler and the orders. The reconstruction of the system of government concerned the main institutions of political decision making. Up to that time the members of the royal council - responsible for making decisions in daily matters - were prelates and barons, but now "counsellors sent by the country" were also among them. The ruler's decisions were invalid without the agreement of the council, a division of power developed. The new diet was formed according to the very same idea. It differed from the previous meetings performing legislative and juridistic tasks as now representatives of the nobility also participated and formed a corporate body and had an active role in decision making. The king and his prelates saw the social base of contemporary Hungarian political system in the nobility of the counties. The royal power admitted the royal servants to the ranks of the nobility in 1267, which was previously a privilege of the leading dignitaries. Andrew and his followers wanted to mobilise this new class of nobility against the barons, so they supported and urged the efforts to form local governments. There was a law which laid down that a chief magistrate, representing the nobility, be appointed in each county. The corporate body, including the county bailiff and chief magistrates, was responsible for matters in the county. The chief magistrates were appointed by the king at that time, and their duties included supervising the county bailiffs, who were appointed from among the nobility. Although Andrew III had to fight against his barons almost every year of his reign, the reconstruction of the system of government - the results of which were recorded by the 1290 and 1298 laws - brought successful results. By 1300 the barons were slowly forced to surrender, and the position of royal power seemed stable. This consolidation stopped when the king died on 14th January, 1301. The Árpád dynasty undoubtedly became extinct with Andrew III's death. The new institutions gradually disappeared, and the barons, having recovered their strength, turned the fights of the pretenders for the Hungarian crown to their own benefits. |