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# {2-650.} Trade and Commerce

The nature and scale of agricultural and industrial production could scarcely induce a highly active domestic market. The large agricultural estates still produced only a small surplus for the market, while the surplus produce of the peasantry barely sufficed to cover taxes, in cash and, for the military, in kind; some peasants had enough left over for minimal purchases of clothing. The majority of town dwellers, including those in mining centres, engaged in some agricultural activity as well. In the open market, consumer demand came largely from landowning aristocrats, prosperous burghers, officials, and military officers, and focused on what might be called luxury goods. This feature of the domestic market leads to consideration of foreign trade.

Transylvania already had a deficit in its foreign trade during the previous period, and the same pattern prevailed between 1770 and 1830. The deficit stood at 840,071 forints in 1781. In 1793, the imbalance was aggravated by the fees paid by Transylvanians for grazing their herds in the two Romanian principalities and Hungary, which amounted to some 200,000 forints; the official figure of 838,337 rénes forints may not fully reflect the abolition of the customs barrier between Hungary and Transylvania, but even allowing for some exaggeration, it represents a considerable burden for the country.

In livestock sector of the 1793 foreign trade balance, the importation of pigs continued to contribute to the deficit, in the approximate amount of 75,000 forints. The abolition of the customs barrier with Hungary makes data on trade in cattle and horses less than reliable. On the other hand, the recorded deficit of 25,000 forints in the grain trade appears realistic. The importation of 19,400 forints' worth of fish and fish roe was dictated by the Lenten customs of Greek Catholics. The shortcomings of local processing explain the need to import 21,000 forints' worth of milk and other dairy products. However, much of the deficit in food trade owed to {2-651.} the importation of luxury items. In the case of sugar, imports were valued at 103,456 forints and exports at only 1301 forints; coffee was wholly an import item, to the tune of 65,817 forints. Spices added 22,700 forints, olive oil around 10,800 forints, and wine close to 17,200 forints to the deficit. With regard to trade in industrial raw materials, the 30,000 forint deficit in cotton is easier to explain that the 42,000 forint deficit in wool. Imports of dyes for textiles contributed 20,000 forints to the deficit. The product deficits were largest in the case of finished goods: 55,500 forints for silk thread and silk cloth, and around 44,600 forints for linen cloth. The balance was healthier in the case of leather and furs. Imports of raw leather (which was not an export item) and furs amounted to 39,000 forints; fur exports fell short of fur imports by around 10,100 forints, but trade in finished leather earned a surplus of 21,600 forints. The balance of trade in metal goods, on the other hand, favoured imports; scythe blades alone contributed 18,800 forints to the deficit.

Clearly, agricultural products and foodstuffs could not go a long way to reduce Transylvania's trade deficit. The main categories in which exports exceeded imports by a significant margin were textiles (wool blankets generated a surplus of 47,621 forints, other woollens 38,592 forints, and cotton thread 34,300 forints); unprocessed flax and hemp (close to 54,000 forints in surplus); finished leather (noted above) and harnesses (12,369 forints); woodwork (around 30,700 forints) and other wood products (25,300 forints); raw iron (6,918 forints), refined iron (61,200 forints), and nails (15,600 forints); and glassware (around 10,250 forints), most of which was exported to Moldavia and Wallachia. These statistics offer a realistic picture of Transylvania's export capabilities, which encompassed the traditional handicrafts (with a few producers approaching manufacturing scale), the guild-dominated leather and harness-making industry, the woodwork produced by guild members and domestic craftsmen, the Vajdahunyad district's iron industry, and a few larger-scale glassworks.

{2-652.} The trade statistics also reveal Transylvania's dependence on imports of certain basic foodstuffs as well as of the more exotic items that the higher social orders came to demand in emulation of the lifestyle in more developed parts of Europe. A positive balance of trade, the dream of Gergely Sándor, László Teleki, and Samuel Dobosi, seemed even farther out of reach in 1793, for the economy was still not sufficiently developed to satisfy domestic demand and generate the requisite exports.